Notes of Heredity and Evolution- Part I
CHAPTER – 9
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
Genetics : Branch of science that deals with Heredity and variation.
Heredity : It means the transmission of features/ characters/ traits from
one generation to the next generation.
Variation : The differences among the individuals of a species/
population are called variations.
Mendel and His Work on Inheritance
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) : Started his experiments on
plant breeding and hybridization and proposed the laws of inheritance
in living organisms.
Mendel ® was known as Father of Genetics
Plant selected by Mendel : Pisum sativum (garden pea).
Mendel used a seven pairs of contrasting characters for garden pea.
(TABLE OF CONTRASTING CHARACTERS. SEVEN PARTS)
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CHARACTER
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DOMINANT TRAIT
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RECESSIVE TRAIT
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Flower colour
Flower position
Seed colour
Seed shape
Pod shape
Pod colour
Height of plant
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Violet
Axial
Yellow
Round
Inflated
Green
Tall
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White
Terminal
Green
Wrinkled
Constricted
Yellow
Dwarf/Short
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Mendels Experiments : Mendel conducted a series of experiments in
which he crossed the pollinated plants to study one character (at a time)
Monohybrid Cross
Cross between two pea plants with one pair of contrasting characters
is called a monohybrid cross.
Example : Cross between a tall and a dwarf plant (short).
MONOHYBRID CROSS
PARENT à Tall plant ´ Dwarf plant
ALLELIC PAIR à TT ´ tt
OF GENES
GAMETES à T T t t
F1 GENERATION à
(first filial generation) Tt (All tall plants)
SELF POLLINATION à Tt ´ Tt
of F1 gametes
GAMETES à T t T t
F2 GENERATION à (Punnet Square)
Gametesà
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T
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t
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T
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TT
Tall
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Tt
Tall
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t
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Tt
Tall
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tt
Dwarf
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Phenotypic ratio à 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio à 1: 2 : 1
TT Both dominant alleles Pure or Homozygous condition
tt Both recessive alleles
Tt One dominant,
One recessive trait Heterozygous condition-Hybrid
Phenotypic ratio : 3:1
Genotypic ratio : 1:2:1
Phenotype ® Physical appearance [Tall or Short]
Genotype ® Genetic make up [TT, Tt or tt]
Observations of Monohybrid Cross
1. All F1 progeny were tall (no medium height plant (half way characteristic)
2. F2 progeny ¼ were short, ¾ were tall
3. Phenotypic ratio F2 à 3:1 (3 tall : 1 short)
Genotypic ratio F2 à 1:2:1 (TT : Tt : tt )
1 : 2 : 1
Conclusions
1. TT and Tt both are tall plants while tt is a short plant.
2. A single copy of T is enough to make the plant tall, while both copies
have to be ‘t’ for the plant to be short.
3. Characters/Traits like 'T' are called dominant trait (because it express
itself) and ‘t’ are recessive trait (because it remains suppressed)
Law of Dominance- Each trait is controlled by two forms of a gene i.e alleles.
One of the allele is dominant and expresses itself whenever present irrespective
of other one. Recessive allele is one which will express itself only in absence of
dominant allele.
Law of segregation: Two alleles controlling a trait in a cell/ individual will
get separated during gamete formation so that one gamete has only one of the allele
in it.
Law of Dominance- Each trait is controlled by two forms of a gene i.e alleles.
One of the allele is dominant and expresses itself whenever present irrespective
of other one. Recessive allele is one which will express itself only in absence of
dominant allele.
Law of segregation: Two alleles controlling a trait in a cell/ individual will
get separated during gamete formation so that one gamete has only one of the allele
in it.
DIHYBRID CROSS : A cross made between two plants having two pairs of
contrasting characters is called dihybrid cross.
PARENT ROUND x WRINKLED
GENERATION GREEN SEEDS YELLOW SEEDS
RRyy x rrYY
GAMETES Ry rY
F1 RrYy
Round Yellow
F1 ´ F1
Selfing F1 ®
RrYy RrYy
Gametes-à Ry RY rY ry ( Both male and female)
F2 :
Gamete
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Ry
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RY
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rY
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ry
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Ry
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RRyy
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RRYy
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RrYy
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Rryy
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RY
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RRYy
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RRYY
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RrYY
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RrYy
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rY
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RrYy
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RrYY
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rrYY
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rrYy
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ry
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Rryy
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RrYY
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rrYy
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rryy
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Phenotypic Ratio in F2
Round, yellow : 9
Round, green : 3
Wrinkled, yellow : 3
Wrinkled, green : 1
Observations
1. When RRyy was crossed with rrYY, in F1 generation all were Rr Yy
round and yellow seeds.
2. Self pollination of F1 plants gave parental phenotype and two mixtures
(recombinants round yellow & wrinkled green) seeds plants in the ratio
of 9:3:3:1
(9 ) : ( 3 ) : ( 3 ) : ( 1 )
Round Round Wrinkled Wrinkled
Yellow Green Yellow Green
Conclusions
1. Round and yellow seeds are DOMINANT characters
2. Occurrence of new phenotypic combinations show that genes for round
and yellow seeds are inherited independently of each other.
Law of Independent assortment: Two pairs of alleles controlling two traits
get separated during gamete formation independent of each other.
MECHANISM OF HEREDITY
Characters or traits of an organism are controlled by the genes
A section of DNA i.e. Gene provides information for synthesis of Proteins
These proteins control a character.
Example :
Gene T à responsible for à More à Results in
synthesis of efficient production of tall plants
enzyme (Protein) growth hormone
Gene t à responsible for à Less à Results in
synthesis of less production of short plants
efficient enzyme growth hormone
SEX DETERMINATION
Phenomenon of decision or determination of sex of an offspring
Factors Responsible for Sex Determination
Environmental
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Genetic
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In some animals the temperature
at which the fertilised eggs are
kept decides the gender.
eg. in Turtle, crocodiles
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In some animals like humans gender or
individual is determined by a pair of
chromosome called sex chromosome
XX – Female
XY – Male
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Sex Chromosomes : Cell of Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosome.
22 chromosomes pairs are autosomes + 1 pair of sex chromosome (decide the gender of the child).
i.e. XX – female
XY – male
Sex determination in Human beings
PARENTS : FATHER MOTHER
XY XX
GAMETES
(Reproductive cells) X Y X X
Zygote
formed
after fusion
of gametes XX XX XY XY
FEMALE FEMALE MALE MALE
offspring 50% probability 50% probability
of a female child of a male child
Half the children will be boys and half will be girls.
All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother regardless whether they are
boys or girls. Thus sex of children will be determined by what they inherit from their father.
EVOLUTION
Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes which takes place in the primitive
organisms, over millions of years, and as a result new species are produced.
Evolutionary Forces: Natural selection, Genetic drift
Situation-I Natural selection
Group of red beetles
Colour variation arises during reproduction
All beetles red except One beetle Green
one that is green Reproduction
Progeny bettles green
Progeny beetles red
Crows feed on red beetle Crow could not feed on
green beetles as they got
camouflaged in green bushes
No. of beetles reduces Number of green
beetles increases
Situation 1: Green beetles got the survival advantage or they were
naturally selected as they were not visible in green bushes. This natural selection
is exerted by crows resulting in adaptations in the beetles to fit better in their
environment.
Situation-II Genetic Drift
Group of red beetles
Colour variation arises during reproduction
All beetles are red except one One blue beetle
that is blue
Reproduction
Number of red beetle increases No. of blue beetle increases
Ø Crows can see both blue and red beetles and can eat them
Ø Number reduces but still red beetles are more and blue ones are few
Ø Suddenly elephant comes and stamps on the bushes
Ø But now beetles left are mostly blue.
Situation 2 : Blue beetles did not get survival advantage. Elephant suddenly
caused major havoc in beetle population otherwise their number would have
been considerably large.
Conclusion: Accidents can change the frequency of some genes even if they
do not get survival advantage: This is called genetic drift and it leads to
variation or diversity without any adaptation.
SITUATION-III (Acquired Traits)
Ø Group of red beetles
Ø Habitat of beetles (bushes) suffer from plant disease
Ø Average weight of beetles decreases due to poor nourishment
Ø Number of beetles kept on reducing
Ø Later plant disease gets eliminated
Ø Number and average weight of the beetles increases again
Situation 3 : No genetic change has occurred in the population of beetle.
The population gets affected for a short duration only due to environmental
changes.
ACQUIRED AND INHERITED TRAITS
Acquired Traits
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Inherited Traits
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1. These are the traits which
develop in an individual due
to special conditions
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1. These are the traits which
develop in an individual due to changes in DNA (genetic changes)
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2. They cannot be transferred to
the progeny
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2. They get transferred to the
progeny
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3. They cannot direct evolution
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3. They are helpful in evolution.
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eg. Low weight of starving
beetles
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eg. Colour of eyes and hair
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Effects of Evolutionary forces i.e. natural selection and genetic drift:
1.Micro evolution : It is the evolution which is on a small scale. eg.
change in body colour of beetles.
2.Speciation : It is the process of formation of new species.
Species : A group of similar individuals within a population that can
interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Ways by which speciation takes place
Speciation takes place when variation is combined with geographical
isolation.
Gene flow : It is exchange of genetic material by interbreeding between
populations of same species or individuals. It occurs between population that
are partly but not completely separated.
POPULATION Z spread in a big area.
Sub Population GEOGRAPHICAL Sub Population
Z1 BARRIER Z2
ISOLATION
(River, Mountain)
Over many-many generations
Results in Accumulation of different variations in
Sub population Z1 and Z2
i) Natural selection*
ii) Genetic drift*
ii) Genetic drift*
Sub population Z1 and Z2 incapable
of interbreeding
Reproductive
Barrier
Formation of Formation of
new Species 1 new Species 2
Natural Selection : The process by which nature selects and consolidate those
organisms which are more suitably adapted and possesses favorable variations.
Genetic Drift: It is the random change in the frequency of alleles (gene pair in a
population over successive generations.
Genetic drift takes place due to
(a) Severe changes in the DNA
(b) Change in number of chromosomes
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